Self-efficacy is just as powerful a predictor of performance in music as skill or ability. Gary McPherson and John McCormick wanted to examine the role of motivation in young musicians’ capacity to prepare for, and satisfactorily complete, prepared examinations on their instrument (McPherson and McCormick, 2006). They felt this line of research was important considering the number of children worldwide who undertake graded externally assessed performance examinations.
These kinds of performance events provide an excellent opportunity to study children’s motivation for learning their musical instruments, and a chance to explore and define important relationships that are often discussed in the literature, but rarely studied (p. 322). Previous studies suggest that self-efficacy precedes academic success because it motivates behavior that leads to successes. This studies aim was to look self-efficacy’s affect on motivation in young musicians.
For this study, the researchers used a sample of 686 students who were completing an Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB) performance examination (90 in Grade 1, 125 in Grade 2, 138 in Grade 3, 119 in Grade 4, 96 in Grade 5, 52 in Grade 6, 31 in Grade 7 and 35 in Grade 8) (p. 324). The examinations were played in front of trained professionals and required candidates to perform prepared pieces, technical exercises, and an etude or study from a graded syllabus. Examiners then gave students one of seven grade indications: unsatisfactory (D), satisfactory (C and C+), credit (B and B+), and honors (A and A+).
In Australia, music teachers use the AMEB as an important indicator of a musician’s overall ability to perform music. AMEB candidates completed a questionnaire the day before their performance examination in order for their personal beliefs and attitudes about their examination to be measured in close proximity to their examination. Included on the first page of the booklet were questions about the instrument to be examined and candidate number, which allowed the researchers to access information on each candidate’s performance result using the computer records of the AMEB.
Also included on the questionnaire was an ethics clearance with a place for the parent/guardian, candidate and a witness to sign. In order to measure self-efficacy, McPherson and McCormick asked the candidates to record the strength of their beliefs using an 11-point scale, ranging in 10unit intervals from 0 to 100 percent. This was taken from Albert Bandura’s recommendation that self-efficacy items should be put in terms of what subjects believe they can do rather than will do.
McPherson and McCormick included questions on the five specific areas in which candidates were being tested during their performance examinations. The results show that candidates who reported using cognitive strategies were more likely to have undertaken more formal practice in preparation for their examination (p. 330). Importantly, however, the effect of’cognitive strategy use’ was stronger on ‘formal practice’ than the actual time they spent practicing (p. 331). In agreement with previous data collected, self-efficacy was the best predictor of the student’s performance result in the examination.
However, one educational necessity stemming from the results is to find better ways to identify students with low self-efficacy and then attempt to strengthen these students’ beliefs in the areas in which they find it difficult to cope. A number of practical implications arise from the current analyses, the most important of which concern what teachers might do to help prepare their students for stressful and challenging performances, and what examination systems might consider to provide an environment in which candidates are given the best possible chance to perform at their best (p. 33).
Students tend to make judgments about how they will perform on a test based on how they performed on similar tests in the past and how the test at hand appears. A test that begins with difficult questions will have a negative impact on all students – particularly the low selfefficacy ones. Applying this concept to music performance exams, we would speculate that candidates should be encouraged to begin their exam with the pieces or technical work they feel most comfortable with.
This would allow them to relax in the beginning of their examination. Another suggestion is the need for teachers to help students develop both their competence and their confidence as they progress on their instrument, and attempt more challenging tasks (p. 334). Teachers need to pay more attention to their students’ opinion of their own personal competence, given evidence that these opinions accurately predict their motivation and the future decisions they make about their desire to continue improving.
Teachers are able to influence their student’s self-beliefs about their own abilities by providing them with challenging tasks and meaningful activities to master. They can actively support and encourage them along the way, and teach in ways that demonstrate that they believe in their students, and convey these impressions in ways aimed at developing a hearty sense of self-confidence. A student’s skill is an important factor in how well they will perform in a performance examination, but just as important is a student’s self-efficacy and their belief that they can complete the task at hand.
If self-efficacy is such a strong predictor of how students will perform in examinations or auditions, what can music educators do to help students succeed? As mentioned in the research article teachers need to provide students with challenging tasks and meaningful activities that they can master. We must actively support and encourage our students, and teach in such a way that shows we believe in them in order to help develop a sense of selfconfidence. We, as music educators, must be an active part in building our students’ self-efficacy.
A good place to start would be to help students learn the proper way to practice. Many times students “practice” just for the sake of playing through the music that needs to be played through. They don’t actually fix mistakes or necessarily even play the music that is difficult for them. They often times will only play the “fun”, easy music. Teaching your young music students how to properly practice will start them off on the right path for building a strong sense of self-efficacy.
Students need to learn practice techniques such as: isolating problem spots, slowing the music down, gradually increasing the tempo, changing the articulation, and other similar techniques. Learning these techniques and being able to apply them to future practice sessions throughout their musical career will help them tremendously. This will be the first step to building their self-efficacy. Along the lines of a proper practice routine is setting a schedule. When learning to play an instrument, students are left to their own devices to choose for themselves how and when they will complete their practice.
The physical, mental and emotional efforts needed to sustain longterm engagement when progress is not always apparent, requires a resilience and persistence that many students do not seem to possess. Teaching students how to create a practice schedule and allow themselves time for breaks will help them to become more engaged in their own learning and progress. In regards to performance examinations and auditions many students experience performance anxiety. Teachers can provide their students with methods to cope with performance anxiety.
A few things that can help with performance anxiety are using special breathing techniques, connecting with your audience, focusing on the enjoyment you are providing the audience, and acting natural and being yourself. There are other methods that might help to cope with performance anxiety, but these are just a few to start with. Another consideration when helping build self-efficacy: how do students recover from failure? Helping students “get back up on the horse” after a failed performance is a big part in building self-efficacy.
If a student quit after each failure, they would never allow themselves to succeed and build heir self-efficacy. Teachers need to teach their students how to assess the situation in which the failure occurred to determine how they might perform better in the future, such as by changing strategies, seeking assistance, or changing environmental conditions. This provides students a vital tool in continuing to grow as a musician. This will keep them playing and performing. Allowing students as many opportunities as possible to perform will give them more chances to succeed. ery experiences are based on prior successes and allowing students more opportunities for those prior successes will hopefully build their self-efficacy.
Whether it is performing a mock audition in front of you or another teacher, or playing in front of the band, students need those opportunities to perform in front of people. Being successful in these opportunities will build their self-confidence and their self-efficacy. Teachers are important factors for the learning and growth of students in all subjects, but especially in music. Music educators need to encourage students along the way to help build their selfcompetence and self-efficacy. Our encouragement as educators will hopefully motivate students to continue improving long into the future.
