Criminology is the study of crime, its perpetrators, and its causes; and, relatedly, an interest in its prevention, and in the deterrence, treatment, and punishment of offenders, (The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 2012). Feminist criminology specifically suggests addressing crimes committed by women. According to Burgess-Proctor (2006) Feminist criminology or the development of female crimes as a mature theoretical orientation gradually became an accepted theory during the 1970s as a pioneering generation of women insisted that female deviances were worthy of academic study.
This shows that the presence of women in criminology is dated only as far back as 40 years ago. Furthermore, it indicates that research based on female criminology is very limited. This essay will explore the notion that women are absent in criminological research but that this is not a true reflection of the reality, that women do commit crimes and at an increasing rate. Reasons why female crimes are not always reported and recorded will also be considered and supported by the statistics of Female crimes recorded and compare to male crimes to support their presence.
Finally, this essay will suggest reasons why more women are committing crimes consequently increasing their presence in criminological research. The idea of women being absent in criminology has developed from biological, sociological and psychological reasons. Biologically, a socially constructed idea of women as criminals is presumed to be an anomaly as women are expected to behave in a feminine and conformist manner, (Leonard, 1982; Browne, 2011).
From a sociological view, Children at a young age are taught the gender roles expected of them, girls are taught to play the expressive role (nurturing and emotional help in the family) while men are expected to play the instrumental role (provider/ breadwinner), Parson (1945) Gender role thesis coupled with gender stereotypes, Brennan & Vandenberg (2009) by providing certain toys and games to establish anticipatory roles expected of them as the family is the primary form of socialisation.
Women are provided with fewer opportunities to partake in crime due to social control, as they are perceived as vulnerable and fragile they are monitored more closely by their parents than their male counterparts (Browne, 2011). The police as a formal social control agent may notice a young lady by herself and be more attentive this limits crime opportunities, (Becker and Mc Corkel, 2011). A psychological reason suggested by Smith (1989) that women are known to bear a certain fear of crimes because of their responsibility to their children.
This is a result of the sex theory role that uses gender socialisatio to explain the idea, (Sutherland 1949). Due to this, women tend to avoid criminal activities or are absent as they have domestic labour roles, including taking care of their children and husbands. Browne (2011, pg. 247) suggested that the “chivalry thesis suggests that more paternalism or sexism on the part of the police and courts means they regard female crimes as minor cases”, this idea is supported by Pollack (1950) that women are treated leniently, as they seem to be vulnerable by the male in the criminal justice system.
Police stereotyping of women indicates that women are less likely to be persecuted as more informal approaches such as warnings would be taken to the offenders as most crimes committed by women are identified as minor crimes and non-violent which includes prostitution or petty theft, Graham and Bowling (1995), this is evidence on why women may seem to be absent in criminological research.
The idea that women are absent in criminological research is outdated as in the 21st century more studies and research concerning female crimes are made, with remarkable development in advanced technology and a more effective police force suggesting that more female related crimes are reported and recorded (Kelling and Moore, 1988). There is a unit in the American Society of criminology known as the division of women, which is dedicated to investigating and recording issues related to female crimes.
This has contributed to the generating of information on female crimes and has increased research on female offenders. According to the Chesney-Lind and Pasko (2013), the total crimes committed by women within 2000-2009 experienced a 19. 8% increase, which dominated the total crimes recorded for men which underwent a decrease of about 1. 4%. Thus, this resulted in an increase in the research in female crimes to better understand why there has been an increase in crimes committed by women.
Crimes committed by women separated into violent and non-violent crimes between 2000 and 2009 shows that there has been a 3. 4% increase in violent crimes committed by women while there was a decrease of 6. 8% in violent crimes committed by men, one of the reasons is the development of the ladette culture which Truemen (2015) suggests as “an increase in female risk-taking behaviour and an adoption of traditionally male attitudes” which includes violence and drunken behaviour that may lead to arrest.
Whereas, the non-violent crime rate of women has increased, with increased equality in the work place because of the Sex Discrimination Act of 1976, more women are doing equally as well as their male counter parts. This may lead to an increase in females involved in white-collar crimes (which is a non-violent crime which is financially motivated) and pink collar crimes (Fraud and embezzlement by women in their work place) and per the FBI (US) there has been a 40% increase in Pink collars crimes since the 1990s. Due to post-modernism and the society becoming secular, women are free to choose whatever life path they desire.
With this liberation, this has led to a new breed of female criminals which Adler and Adler (1975) describes as “more aggressive, violent and unfeminine” as they are empowered with the freedom to choose their identity. Although there is research that shows that women are not biologically fit and capable to commit serious crimes. Mead (1935) actually demonstrated that the idea is socially constructed and not biological as women in the Mundugumor tribe in New Guinea displayed characteristics generally associated with men in western societies, this means sex roles are socially constructed.
As stated previously the chivalry thesis suggests leniency on judgements for female offenders, however, this leads to a case of double deviance as women involved in crimes not socially anticipated of their gender. Double deviance means that women are punished more harshly than their male counterparts when they deviated from socially acceptable norms and attitude (Heidenshon, 1985). A case study of this is the case of Tracey Connelly of 2007. Her 17 months old son Peter was murdered by her boyfriend Steven Barker after being subjected to about 2 years of constant torture, while Tracey neglected her son.
The sentence was Tracey would have an indefinite imprisonment with a minimum of 5 years this means her sentence could be extended anytime which make it likely for her to stay longer in reason, while the boy friends was charged guilty of child abuse and was given a definite sentence of 12 years in prison. In conclusion, the idea that women are absent in criminological research is outdated because of sociological changes such as increased police force, less leniency on women and increased equality for women in the workforce.
Focusing on statistics of female offender crimes recorded and the increasing crime rate committed by women has brought attention to female in criminological research, which has led to more female crimes to be reported and recorded this has strengthened their presence in criminological research. In the nearest future, it is predicted that the crimes committed by women is likely to increase due to the growing ladette culture, improved equality for women may also lead to a rise in their presence in criminological research.