Adapted physical activity is a cross-disciplinary field of study that is still relatively new promotes an active, healthy lifestyle by remediating psychomotor problem that interfere with goal achievement and self-actualization (Sherrill (1998), Haegele, J. , Jihyun Lee, J. , & Porretta, D. , (2015)). Adapted physical education is a key factor of physical activity for many children. “Physical Education is potentially the main source of physical activity and development of physical skills for many children and youth” (Bailey, 2006 & Burgeson, 2004).
The importance of an active lifestyle to enhance focus, physical activity, and nutritional aspects is imperative. Not only are individuals with disabilities lacking in adequate daily physical activity and nutrition, but children in good health are also deficient. The obesity epidemic continues to grow with its rise in children and adolescents. This worldwide epidemic evens applies to individual with disabilities.
Stated in the article Collaboration between special and physical education, regular exercise also raises students’ self-esteem and decrease their chance of developing depression or other mental illness (Klein & Hollingshead, 2015). According to Klein and Hollingshead, the majority of time spent in school, students are asked to sit down and be still which can be difficult on students with limited physical mobility. Most children will do the very same thing sitting after school, doing homework, watching television and to play video games. The current prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents in the United States ages 2-19 years is 16. 3% and the prevalence of overweight is 31. 9%. Childhood obesity is associated with an increased risk for elevated cardiovascular risk factor levels, Type 2 diabetes, orthopedic problems, sleep apnea, and menstrual irregularities” (Curtain, C. , Anderson, S,. Must, A. , and Bandini, L. , 2010). “People with disabilities have an increased chance of health difficulties. Obesity rates for children with disabilities are 38% higher than for their peers without disabilities” (Klein & Hollingshead 2015).
Research shows students with disabilities need to have access to more physical education classes more than students without disabilities due to already diagnosed health and mental difficulties (Klein & Hollingshead, 2015). The limited access to healthy food, difficulty chewing or swallowing food, that medications with side-effects such as weight gain or changes in appetite, possess physical limitations or experience pain with movement, or accessible environment all contribute to the rise in childhood obesity (Klein& Hollingshead, 2015).
Physical education gives children and adolescent with disabilities the opportunity to stay physically active. Adapted physical education allows for children with physical and/or mental disabilities the encounter of organized sports and other extremity moving activities. In most cases with the assistance of a paraeducators (teachers’ aide) the children are able to engage in the desired activity. Perception of Physical Activity In 2013, Perkins, Columna, Lieberman, and Bailey conducted to study to explored parents’ perceptions of physical activity for their children with visual impairments along with barriers to physical activity.
To identify possible participants for the study convenience sampling was used. Selection criteria required participants to be the parents of children with visual impairments, children between the ages of 3-18, and the child needed to have a visual impairment that was significant enough to receive vision services at school. The researchers had thirteen families participate in the study in which 11 parents from 8 families were interviewed (Perkins, Columna, Lieberman, and Bailey, 2013).
Stuart, Lieberman, and Hand (2006) also conducted a study involving parents and their children who a visual impairment. It is believed children who engage in regular physical activity are more likely to have an active lifestyle in adulthood. According to Stuart et al. , inactivity among children without disabilities has been linked to a variety of psychosocial factors, one of which is parents’ beliefs and behaviors regarding physical activity. This study included examining the relationship between parent and child variables concerning the physical activity of children with visual impairment.
The parents’ variables were the perceived value placed on the children’s physical activity and the expectations of success for the children’s physical activity. The researchers selected 50 participants which included 25 children (14 boys and 11 girls) aged 10-12 who attended a one-week summer sports camp for children with visual impairment and the primary parent of each of child (n = 25) (Stuart, Lieberman, and Hand, 2006). A result of lack of opportunities, low expectations, and minimal experiences for their children lead parents to believe educational solutions were needed to increase involvement of hysical activity. Perception of Motivation Carr and Weigand (2001) examined the relationship between goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate emphasized by parents, peers, teachers and sporting heroes for children in physical education (Carr & Weigand, 2001). Similar to the previous study, French, Henderson, Lavay, and Silliman-French. (2014) reviewed intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by adapted physical educators when planning, implementing, and evaluating their lessons.
It is essential that intrinsic motivation be supplemented initially by extrinsic reinforcers to accomplish the desired performance (French, Henderson, Lavay, and Silliman-French, 2014). In the perception of motivation, perceptions of the motivational climate created by parents have been linked to youngsters’ motivational patterns in sport and physical education (PE). The Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ) was used to assess the parental motivational climate. Perceptions of parental emphasis on comparison predicted ego orientation and feelings of being under pressure in PE.
For the sample, 266 pupils attending schools in the east of England and involved in a variety of interscholastic sports. The sample population had an age range of 11-15 years. There were 145 males and 121 females (Carr & Weigand, 2001). Parental Influence The socializing influence of parents on children and adolescent’s experience in PE was assessed through an adapted version of the PE Class Climate Scale. The participants were then required to respond to seven items for two subscales: promotion of learning and promotion of comparison. Social-cognitive theories of achievement motivation (e. g. Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1989) have linked children’s motivational patterns in sport and PE to socialization experience” (Carr & Weigand, 2001). Results indicated that children who experienced higher levels of task orientation for PE perceived a greater learning-oriented climate emphasized by their parents, peers and teachers. However experimental research is required to more firmly establish the effects of the motivational climate that parents, peers, and teachers emphasize to children (Carr & Weigand, 2001).
Inclusion in Physical Education Inclusion in Physical Education: A Review of Literature from 1995-2005, Block and Obrusnikova critically analyzed English-written research articles pertaining to inclusion of students with disabilities in physical education. Inclusion, the philosophy of supporting the educational needs of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. First identifying articles relevant to inclusion and PE from January 1995 and July 2005.
Seven edibility criteria were selected by the two authors: (a) must be original study published form January 1995 to July 2005; (b) must be published in the English language; (c) must be located in periodical publications…; (d) must consist of field based research or research that examined inclusion practices…; (e) must provide a clear definition of sample selected, the independent and dependent variables measured, the assessment instruments employed, and the data analyzed used; (f)must focus on GPE students…; and (g) must focus on inclusion of at least one student (K-12) who was clinically diagnosed with a disability.
From the results, 85 articles were reviewed and only 38 met the inclusion criteria. Which in the purpose statement of the 38 articles several different aspects of inclusion in GPE were studied over the past ten years. After an in depth analysis six focus areas were selected from the articles: (a) support (n=8), (b) affects on peers without disabilities (n=6), (c) attitudes and intentions of children without disabilities (n=4), (d) social interactions (n=7), (e) ALT-PE of students with disabilities (n=3), (f) training and attitudes of GPE teachers (n=12).
This study shows limited inclusion research as well as little to no confidence and knowledge of general physical education teachers to accommodate students with disabilities (Block and Obrusnikova, 2007). Paraeducators In a study involving parents’ perception and physical activity (Perkins et al. , 2013, & Stuart et al. , 2006) the measurements taken were parents’ demographic questions, parent value inventory, child value inventory, expectations for success inventory, and barrier inventory.
In conclusion, a link between lack of opportunities and lower expectations for success. The practical implications of the findings include the need for disability awareness programs. The expectancy-value model was used to describe the value of physical activity. Barriers to physical activity include (a) physical educators with lack of education in working with children with disabilities, (b) uncertified physical educators, and (c) communication with special educators.
In a study involving parents’ perception and physical activity (Perkins et al. , 2013, & Stuart et al. 2006) the measurements taken were parents’ demographic questions, parent value inventory, child value inventory, expectations for success inventory, and barrier inventory. In conclusion, a link between lack of opportunities and lower expectations for success. The practical implications of the findings include the need for disability awareness programs. The expectancy-value model was used to describe the value of physical activity. Barriers to physical activity include (a) physical educators with lack of education in working with children with disabilities, (b) uncertified physical educators, and (c) communication with special educators.
Lieberman and Conroy (2013) studies to determine current training practices for paraeducators in the classroom and what is needed to ensure proper training for physical education for paraeducators who work with children with visual impairment. The participants were 143 professionals and parents (27 men and 116 women) who work with or have a child (or children) who are visually impaired. Questionnaires were analyzed for quantitative and qualitative results determining what training exist.
Of the 143 participants, “52 (36%) said that the children they work with are in inclusive placements in general education classrooms. Forty-one (29%) were in a one hundred participants (70%) said that paraeducators supported their children with visual impairments in general education classrooms, 29 (20%) said that paraeducators go to the children’s classrooms some of the time, 19 (13%) said that the paraeducators did not support the children they work with in the classroom, and 3 did not answer this question” (Lieberman & Conroy, 2013).