The Baroque style of art emerged during a tumultuous period of religious and political change (Carl and Charles 2012). During the 16th century, rival religious beliefs weakened the power of Catholic dogma and papal authority across Europe. As a result, the Counter-Reformation sought to make institutional reforms, and reinvigorate the mystical and evangelical ideals of Catholic theology (Mullett 2002).
These reforms included strict guidelines on the purpose and content of religious artworks. The Baroque style displayed emotional intensity through naturalism and theatre, and therefore appealed to the artistic ideals of these reforms (Zirpolo 2010). One of the most prominent artists of the Baroque period was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio who became renowned for his innovative techniques in religious dramatization, and highly patronised by the church.
Despite his controversial reputation (Witting 2007; Schloder 2015), Caravaggio’s ability to create powerful and expressive images that universally appealed to the senses became fundamental to the Counter-Reformation’s goal of restoring absolute catholic devotion in the public (Sloan 1988). The protestant uprising of the 1500’s considered the use of religious imagery as heresy and felt an individual’s internal faith had more divine providence than the worship of external forms (Flemming 2009).
In contrast to this ideology, the Counter- Reformation viewed religious imagery as an important tool for use in prayer, and furthermore as a strategic device for Catholic conversion (Bohn and Saslow 2013). The year 1545 saw the convening of The Council of Trent; and not only did they reinforce the role of art in religion as a cultivation of piety (Council of Trent (1545-1563) and Waterworth 1888), but also announced strict guidelines on artistic decency.
Artists became “active workers for the Catholic Reform” (Bohn and Saslow 2013, 486), and scenes depicting martyrdom as a holy heroic sacrifice, glorification of the Virgin Mary, and catholic absolutism were preferred (Zirpolo 2010). They specifically encouraged the creation of religious art that would appeal to the senses of all who viewed it, in the hope that those viewers would feel like a participant in the religious scene unfolding before them (Chorpenning 1987; Zirpolo 2010).
For that reason, the Baroque artworks produced during the time of the counter-reformation were characterised by their sensational depictions of biblical scenes (Carl and Charles 2012). While these images were championed as a tool for pious meditation (Council of Trent (1545-1563) and Waterworth 1888), ultimately the church would use these religious dramatizations as a way to convert followers and subvert the growth of Protestantism across Europe (Mullett 2002).
Caravaggio’s religious works are symbolic of the artistic doctrines created by the Counter-Reformation (Chorpenning 1987). Through the depiction of extreme realism and innovative use of chiaroscuro (contrasting light and shadow) (Harris 2010), biblical scenes became humanised and embodied the ideals of religious art being accessible to even the most illiterate of spectator (Harris 2010). His depiction of saints and martyrs as ordinary people evoke a powerful emotional response in the viewer.
However, his unorthodox use of real life models to achieve this level of naturalism were heavily criticised the by clergy (Felix and Patrizi 2007), such as his use of a bloated corpse in Death of the Virgin (1605). But undoubtedly these techniques enabled him to produced religious imagery with allegorical clarity and emotional immediacy (Chorpenning 1987). Because of this, the emotional exaggeration present in Caravaggio’s work is the “pictorial equivalent” (Chorpenning 1987, 150) of the true goals Counter-Reformation.
The Supper at Emmaus (1601) is among the most powerful religious images created by the artist (Harris 2010). The image is a dramatization of the moment Jesus reveals himself to his disciples after his resurrection, before disappearing from their sight (Luke 24: 30-31). It displays all of the emotional intensity and theatre required of a religious image of that time. Christ reveals himself as he raises his arm to bless the bread, with his figure illuminated by an indeterminate source of light (Harris 2010).
This extreme use of chiaroscuro focuses the viewer’s attention on Christ and his two disciples. Christ’s right arm is dramatically foreshortened, reaching out and bringing the viewer into the scene. His two disciples are watching on with in astonishment, while the innkeeper is oblivious. Unusually, they are depicted as average townspeople and are perhaps the very same people who the image was intended. The disciple to his left has theatrically outstretched his arms symbolising Jesus on the cross, hence creating another invitation to participate.
Caravaggio depicts the most dramatic moment of the biblical passage thereby heightening the emotional response and reasserting the idea of Catholic piety in the viewer (Harris 2010). Another work that is symbolic of the Counter-Reformation artistic doctrine is The Crucifixion of St. Andrew (1607). Once again, Caravaggio is trying to elicit the maximum emotional response from the viewer by depicting the biblical scene at its most dramatic moment (Schloder 2015). The scene illustrates the execution of Christ’s first follower Andrew, his plea for martyrdom, and the subsequent unsuccessful attempt to release him upon his exoneration.
Caravaggio depicts an intimate version of events and portrays the martyr at the moment he is released from suffering, with the man to his right unable to free him from the cross, possibly paralysed by the arm of god (Schloder 2015). Again, the onlookers are humanised and appear confounded by the miracle, and the intensity of the events heightened by the use of chiaroscuro. Most notably, the woman to his right is suffering from a goiter, which was a common affliction during the period.
Schloder (2015, 15) suggests that by highlighting this characteristic the artist sought to “elicit compassion for the misery of the poor and sick”, a reminder that Catholic piety would offer protection. Above all, he is using the emotionally extreme depiction of St. Andrews martyrdom to reaffirm the closeness to god in Catholic devotion (Felix and Patrizi 2007). The Protestant uprising contributed to expedited change within the Catholic Church. To ensure that it maintained prominence within public consciousness, the Counter-Reformation weaponised art to reinforce catholic doctrine.
In particular, they felt the most effective way to cultivate piety was through the creation of art that would elicit an extreme emotional response from the viewer. Although never shy of controversy, the early Baroque artist Caravaggio dramatized biblical events and created the type of imagery that could provoke these responses. His works displayed emotional extremes through human drama, therefore triggering complete emotional resonance in the viewer. His artworks reflected the goals Counter- Reformation, and played an essential part in their quest for absolutism.