Among the most renowned literary works are those of the ancient Greeks. Literary works by the ancient Greeks include historical documentation, along with tragedies based on conflicts. According to the historian Thucydides, the greatest conflict was the Peloponnesian war between the Athenians and Spartans, along with each of their allies. In the opinion of Thucydides, the Peloponnesian war was due to the growth of Athens and the fear, the growth caused in the Spartans and their allies (Thucydides, Book I, chapter 1).
Accounts of events by Thucydides, for Francis Cornford, are not merely historic, but rather works of art. The History of the Peloponnesian War according to Thucydides is artistic through carefully crafted speeches and captivating descriptions, however the writing is historical through the comprehensive documentation of events. Artistry is chiefly demonstrated through, the construction of speeches. Speeches are found throughout the document in order to improve the historical dialogue.
According to Thucydides his method for including speeches is as follows, “With reference to the speeches in this history, some were delivered before the war began, others while it was going on; some I heard myself, others I got from various quarters; it was in all cases difficult to carry them word for word in one’s memory, so my habit has been to make the speakers say what was in my opinion demanded of them by the various occasions, of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what they really said,” (Thucydides, Book I, chapter 1).
In other words the speeches were derived from his first-hand accounts or from individuals at the event. However, the speeches are imperfect accounts, not only due to the passage of time, for the speeches are fabrications based on what Thucydides believed the speakers should have remarked. Despite the fabrication of the speeches, they do not detract from the history for the structure and content is of high quality. This is due to the high regard the ancient Greeks held for their language.
The regard for their language is demonstrated in a speech by Nicias, an Athenian general, to his troops before facing impending defeat, in which he acknowledged their allies as Athenians, not due to similarity in origin, but rather their sharing of language placing the equal prestige (Thucydides, Book IV, chapter XXIII). One of the finest examples of the artistry of Thucydides’ craftsmanship of speeches, is the speech given by Pericles, an important Athenian politician, at a public funeral, after the first year of the war.
This speech is among the most celebrated of the ancient Greeks, due to the inclusion of a passionate tribute to the fallen and glorification of Athens and the polis’ causes. Within the glorification of Athens, he emphasized the sophistication of Athens and their aptitude for art of the mind. The first reference is towards the beginning of the address with these words, “Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighboring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves.
These references continue throughout including, “Further, we provide plenty of means for the mind to refresh itself from business,” and “In short, I say that as a city we are the school of Hellas, while I doubt if the world can produce a man who, where he has only himself to depend upon, is equal to so many emergencies, and graced by so happy a versatility, as the Athenian,” (Thucydides, Book II, chapter IV). Another highly regarded section of speeches formulated by Thucydides, are those of Nicias and Alcibiades, arguing opposing views regarding the involvement of Athens in Sicily.
While Nicias and Alcibiades presented different standpoints, both of them through the art of speechmaking, by the way of the premises and conclusions of their argument, appealed to the philosophical and psychological values the council. Nicias debated that the Athenians should have not become involved, for they were already fighting Sparta and becoming engaged with Sicily may provide an opportunity for Sparta to bring destruction, which would place dishonor on the Athenians. On the other hand, Alcibiades’ appealed to feelings of superiority of their navy and the ethical responsibility to help their allies.
Within the speeches are other artistic elements, chiefly the literary device of irony. Irony is clearly demonstrated in the speeches by Nicias, for after he realized the council was inclined with Alcibiades’ argument for becoming involved with Sicily, he attempted to persuade them by scaring them with the enormous amount of resources needed and the dangerous consequences if the resources are not available. However, his speech only increased their passion, as a result they provided the Athenian army with all the resources Nicias said would be necessary and appointed him to be one of the generals, in a war he was against.
In the end Nicias died due to his concerns about engaging in war with Sicily (Thucydides, Book VI, chapter XVIII). In addition to the case of Nicias, irony is found in the funeral oration by Pericles, for he described Athens as friendly, “In generosity we are equally singular, acquiring our friends by conferring, not by receiving, favors. Yet, of course, the doer of the favor is the firmer friend of the two, in order by continued kindness to keep the recipient in his debt; while the debtor feels less keenly from the very consciousness that the return he makes will be a payment, not a free gift.
And it is only the Athenians, who, fearless of consequences, confer their benefits not from calculations of expediency, but in the confidence of liberality. ” (Thucydides, Book II, chapter IV). Yet, this was not the case, because in Book I when explaining the causes, Thucydides cites the cause the war as being the growth in the greed of the Athenians (Thucydides, Book I, chapter I & II). Along with irony incidences of foreshadowing are found within the text. The betrayal by Alcibiades is foreshadowed by the accusations of defacing statues of Hermes (Thucydides, Book VI, chapter XVIII).
This is one of the numerous examples of how hroughout the document, especially in the speeches, Thucydides’ language reveals the motives of key participants. Alcibiades is portrayed as an egotistical antagonist as demonstrated by this description, “By far the warmest advocate of the expedition was, however, Alcibiades, son of Clinias, who wished to thwart Nicias both as his political opponent and also because of the attack he had made upon him in his speech, and who was, besides, exceedingly ambitious of a command by which he hoped to reduce Sicily and Carthage, and personally to gain in wealth and reputation by means of his successes,” (Thucydides, Book VI, chapter XVIII).
While, Nicias is the virtuous protagonist, “This or the like was the cause of the death of a man who, of all the Hellenes in my time, least deserved such a fate, seeing that the whole course of his life had been regulated with strict attention to virtue,” (Thucydides, Book VII, chapter XXIII). In between the speeches, the text is artistic through captivating descriptions.
Among the most enthralling descriptions are those of the chaos and tragedy of the final naval battle. The following is a selection from the depiction, “So long as a vessel was coming up to the charge the men on the decks rained darts and arrows and stones upon her; but once alongside, the heavy infantry tried to board each other’s vessel, fighting hand to hand.
In many quarters it happened, by reason of the narrow room, that a vessel was charging an enemy on one side and being charged herself on another, and that two or sometimes more ships had perforce got entangled round one, obliging the helmsmen to attend to defense here, offence there not to one thing at once, but to many on all sides; while the huge din caused by the number of ships crashing together not only spread terror, but made the orders of the boatswains inaudible,” (Thucydides, Book VII, chapter XXIII).
Another captivating account is of the desperation of the Athenians for water, “Meanwhile the opposite bank, which was steep, was lined by the Syracusans, who showered missiles down upon the Athenians, most of them drinking greedily and heaped together in disorder in the hollow bed of the river. The Peloponnesians also came down and butchered them, especially those in the water, which was thus immediately spoiled, but which they went on drinking just the same, mud and all, bloody as it was, most even fighting to have it. ” (Thucydides, Book VII, chapter XXIII).
