A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-forms known have a common origin. The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on the Earth, both living and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3. 5 billion years ago. [21] Biologists generally regard the universality and ubiquity of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life). 22]
Introduced into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809,[23] evolution was established by Charles Darwin fifty years later as a viable scientific model when he articulated its driving force: natural selection. [24][25][26] (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept as he helped research and experiment with the concept of evolution. )[27] Evolution is now used to explain the great variations of life found on Earth. Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding. 28] Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory. [29] The evolutionary history of the species—which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descendedtogether with its genealogical relationship to every other species is known as its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny.
These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. 30] Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics. (For a summary of major events in the evolution of life as currently understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline. ) Genetics two by two table showing genetic crosses A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms Main article: Genetics Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways.
All organisms, from bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins. Cells transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA into a protein, a sequence of amino acids. The translation code from RNA codon to amino acid is the same for most organisms, but slightly different for some. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in humans also codes for insulin when inserted into other organisms, such as plants. [31] DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes.
A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is collectively known as its genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is located in the cell nucleus, along with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. [32] The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype. 33]
Homeostasis Main article: Homeostasis diagram showing feedback loop of hormones The hypothalamus secretes CRH, which directs the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH. In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as cortisol. The GCs then reduce the rate of secretion by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland once a sufficient amount of GCs has been released. [34] Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms.
All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. [35] To maintain dynamic equilibrium and effectively carry out certain functions, a system must detect and respond to perturbations. After the detection of a perturbation, a biological system normally responds through negative feedback. This means stabilizing conditions by either reducing or increasing the activity of an organ or system. One example is the release of glucagon when sugar levels are too low. diagram showing human energy process from food input to heat and waste output Basic overview of energy and human life.
Energy The survival of a living organism depends on the continuous input of energy. Chemical reactions that are responsible for its structure and function are tuned to extract energy from substances that act as its food and transform them to help form new cells and sustain them. In this process, molecules of chemical substances that constitute food play two roles; first, they contain energy that can be transformed for biological chemical reactions; second, they develop new molecular structures made up of biomolecules.
The organisms responsible for the introduction of energy into an ecosystem are known as producers or autotrophs. Nearly all of these organisms originally draw energy from the sun. [36] Plants and other phototrophs use solar energy via a process known as photosynthesis to convert raw materials into organic molecules, such as ATP, whose bonds can be broken to release energy. [37] A few ecosystems, however, depend entirely on energy extracted by chemotrophs from methane, sulfides, or other non-luminal energy sources. [38]
Some of the captured energy is used to produce biomass to sustain life and provide energy for growth and development. The majority of the rest of this energy is lost as heat and waste molecules. The most important processes for converting the energy trapped in chemical substances into energy useful to sustain life are metabolism[39] and cellular respiration. [40] Study and research Structural Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics and Developmental biology color diagram of cell as bowl Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures.
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. [41] This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. Cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behaviors, interactions, and environment.
This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for unicellular organisms such as bacteria, as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. [42]
Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. 43][44] Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a central role in influencing the final phenotype of the organism. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information generally is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules. Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop.
Originating in embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, and “morphogenesis,” which is the process that progressively gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model organisms for developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans,[45] the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster,[46] the zebrafish Danio rerio,[47] the mouse Mus musculus,[48] and the weed Arabidopsis thaliana. [49][50] (A model organism is a species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in that organism provide nsight into the workings of other organisms. )[51]
Physiological Main article: Physiology Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of “structure to function” is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells.
The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology borrows techniques from both research fields. Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology. Evolutionary Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines.
For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, botany, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution,[52] and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics. [53] In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. 54] Related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy. Systematic A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese.
Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated. olor diagram of taxonomy The hierarchy of biological classification’s eight major taxonomic ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown. This diagram uses a 3 Domains / 6 Kingdoms format Main article: Systematics Multiple speciation events create a tree structured system of relationships between species. The role of systematics is to study these relationships and thus the differences and similarities between species and groups of species. [55] However, systematics was an active field of research long before evolutionary thinking was common. [56]
Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms: Monera; Protista; Fungi; Plantae; Animalia. [57] However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria); Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) and Eukaryota (including protists, fungi, plants, and animals)[58] These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of key biomolecules such as ribosomes. 58]
Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species. Outside of these categories, there are obligate intracellular parasites that are “on the edge of life”[59] in terms of metabolic activity, meaning that many scientists do not actually classify these structures as alive, due to their lack of at least one or more of the fundamental functions or characteristics that define life.
They are classified as viruses, viroids, prions, or satellites. The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase. [60] Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined. [61] The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature.
How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). The classification of viruses, viroids, prions, and all other sub-viral agents that demonstrate biological characteristics is conducted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and is known as the International Code of Viral Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN). 62][63][64][65]
However, several other viral classification systems do exist. A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature in these three areas, but has yet to be formally adopted. [66] The BioCode draft has received little attention since 1997; its originally planned implementation date of January 1, 2000, has passed unnoticed. A revised BioCode that, instead of replacing the existing codes, would provide a unified context for them, was proposed in 2011. [67][68][69]
